It consists of both structural and functional syllabus Aspects of Grading a syllabus (McIntosh and strevens,1964) 1. Staging 2. Sequencing Selection and Gradation of Vocabulary 1. Frequency of occurrence 2. Coverage 3. Range 4. Availability 5. Learnability (Mackey, 1965) a. Similarity of the L2 word to its L1 equivalent b. Demonstrability c. Brevity d. Regularity of form e. Learning load represented by a new word 6. Two other factors: a. Opportunism b. interest Structure selection 1. Frequency 2. Coverage 3. Learnability and teachability Structure Grading Frequency Ergonic combination Concreteness Proportion General expediency
The tip for how to teach pronoun usage is not to trust your ear. If you trust your ear, you would have said the answer to the example above would have been "him." You would have been wrong. You have to stick to the rules, regardless of the way it sounds. If you know the rules, use the rules, and apply the rules, there is no reasons why you should miss pronoun usage questions. Object Pronouns Object pronouns usually, but not always, are located at the end of sentences. Common object pronouns are us, him, her, us, you, etc. Object pronouns follow objects: direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of the prepositions. If you do not know how these grammatical concepts function, I suggest you review them before moving on so you will be able to recognize direct and indirect objects as well as objects of prepositions. Here is an example: The letter was addressed to him. To is the preposition, so you know that you have to use an object pronoun, which is him. Assessing Student Understanding After explaining the concept to students write ten sentences on your SMARTboard and see if students understand the concept. For example: (He, Him) went to school. Obviously, the answer is he as "he" is the subject of the verb. After students understand how to use subject and object pronouns, introduce who and whom to students. This concept, often dreaded by students, is just as easy as using he/him.
In all over the world, teaching as a career option is considered as one of the noble professions of today. A teacher has full authority and responsibility to mould his students. For building a career in teaching, one should have some different skills and training at different levels. Teachers can make the future of their students by rousing their curiosity and by watching them grow.
For becoming a teacher, one should have to do different areas of specialization for nursery schools, primary schools, high schools, middle schools, colleges and universities etc. For each type of level, an individual must have different types of expertise. People, who love children, can start their career as a teacher in schools and on the other hand, one who wants to mentor young people, should teach in college or university. For being a teacher, the only important thing is that you should be expertise in your field. The basic qualities of a teacher are patient, perseverant, ready to adopt the students' demands and pleasing personality. Being successful in this profession, one should able to understand the students' psychology. With his intelligence, wisdom and patience, a teacher can influence on the students in a positive manner. Students consider their teachers as their role model.
In building a career in teaching, one should have to do a professional course from the reputed institute. Some of professional courses are NTT course, B.Ed, M.Ed and so on. Sharda Group of Institutions also offers B.Ed program at its affiliated college. Now this institute has also established a private university i.e. Sharda University in Greater Noida under Act 14 2009 of UP State Legislative and approved by UGC. B.Ed. Program of the institute is affiliated to Dr. B.R. Ambedakar university, Agra that is formerly known as Agra University. The eligibility criteria for taking admission in B.Ed program at SGI Institute is required Bachelor's degree in any discipline with minimum 55% marks. This institute believes in delivering high level education to the students with the help of its accomplished faculty members. In short, teaching as a career option is a challenging option for everyone because teachers are responsible for making one's career.
Written by Mukesh Kumar from:http://www.eduq.com/Articles/Teaching--An-Honorable-Profession-of-Today.aspx
This "Digest" is based on the ERIC/CLL "Language in Education" series monograph entitled "Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Teaching" by Karl Krahnke, available from Prentice-Hall/Regents for $11.33. To order, write to: Book Distribution Center, Route 59 at Brook Hill Dr., West Nyack, NY 10994 or call: 1-800-223-1360.
THE PLACE OF THE SYLLABUS A language teaching syllabus involves the integration of subject matter (what to talk about) and linguistic matter (how to talk about it); that is, the actual matter that makes up teaching. Choices of syllabi can range from the more or less purely linguistic, where the content of instruction is the grammatical and lexical forms of the language, to the purely semantic or informational, where the content of instruction is some skill or information and only incidentally the form of the language. To design a syllabus is to decide what gets taught and in what order. For this reason, the theory of language explicitly or implicitly underlying the language teaching method will play a major role in determining what syllabus is adopted. Theory of learning also plays an important part in determining the kind of syllabus used. For example, a syllabus based on the theory of learning espoused by cognitive code teaching would emphasize language forms and whatever explicit descriptive knowledge about those forms was presently available. A syllabus based on an acquisition theory of learning, however, would emphasize unanalyzed, though possibly carefully selected experiences of the new language in an appropriate variety of discourse types. The choice of a syllabus is a major decision in language teaching, and it should be made as consciously and with as much information as possible.There has been much confusion over the years as to what different types of content are possible in language teaching syllabi and as to whether the differences are in syllabus or method. Several distinct types of language teaching syllabi exist, and these different types may be implemented in various teaching situations.
SIX TYPES OF SYLLABI Although six different types of language teaching syllabi are treated here as though each occurred "purely," in practice, these types rarely occur independently of each other. Almost all actual language teaching syllabi are combinations of two or more of the types defined here. For a given course, one type of syllabus usually dominates, while other types of content may be combined with it. Furthermore, the six types of syllabi are not entirely distinct from each other. For example, the distinction between skill-based and task-based syllabi may be minimal. In such cases, the distinguishing factor is often the way in which the instructional content is used in the actual teaching procedure. The characteristics, differences, strengths, and weaknesses of individual syllabi are defined as follows: 1. "A structural (formal) syllabus." The content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples include nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, subordinate clauses, and so on.
2. "A notional/functional syllabus." The content of the language teaching is a collection of the functions that are performed when language is used, or of the notions that language is used to express. Examples of functions include: informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting; examples of notions include size, age, color, comparison, time, and so on.
3. "A situational syllabus." The content of language teaching is a collection of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. A situation usually involves several participants who are engaged in some activity in a specific setting. The language occurring in the situation involves a number of functions, combined into a plausible segment of discourse. The primary purpose of a situational language teaching syllabus is to teach the language that occurs in the situations. Examples of situations include: seeing the dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying a book at the book store, meeting a new student, and so on.
4. "A skill-based syllabus." The content of the language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language. Skills are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a language, relatively independently of the situation or setting in which the language use can occur. While situational syllabi group functions together into specific settings of language use, skill-based syllabi group linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse) together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral presentations, and so on. The primary purpose of skill-based instruction is to learn the specific language skill. A possible secondary purpose is to develop more general competence in the language, learning only incidentally any information that may be available while applying the language skills.
5. "A task-based syllabus." The content of the teaching is a series of complex and purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform with the language they are learning. The tasks are defined as activities with a purpose other than language learning, but, as in a content-based syllabus, the performance of the tasks is approached in a way that is intended to develop second language ability. Language learning is subordinate to task performance, and language teaching occurs only as the need arises during the performance of a given task. Tasks integrate language (and other) skills in specific settings of language use. Task-based teaching differs from situation-based teaching in that while situational teaching has the goal of teaching the specific language content that occurs in the situation (a predefined product), task-based teaching has the goal of teaching students to draw on resources to complete some piece of work (a process). The students draw on a variety of language forms, functions, and skills, often in an individual and unpredictable way, in completing the tasks. Tasks that can be used for language learning are, generally, tasks that the learners actually have to perform in any case. Examples include: applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing information over the telephone, and so on.
6. "A content-based-syllabus." The primary purpose of instruction is to teach some content or information using the language that the students are also learning. The students are simultaneously language students and students of whatever content is being taught. The subject matter is primary, and language learning occurs incidentally to the content learning. The content teaching is not organized around the language teaching, but vice-versa. Content-based language teaching is concerned with information, while task-based language teaching is concerned with communicative and cognitive processes. An example of content-based language teaching is a science class taught in the language the students need or want to learn, possibly with linguistic adjustment to make the science more comprehensible.
In general, the six types of syllabi or instructional content are presented beginning with the one based most on structure, and ending with the one based most on language use. Language is a relationship between form and meaning, and most instruction emphasizes one or the other side of this relationship.
CHOOSING AND INTEGRATING SYLLABI Although the six types of syllabus content are defined here in isolated contexts, it is rare for one type of syllabus or content to be used exclusively in actual teaching settings. Syllabi or content types are usually combined in more or less integrated ways, with one type as the organizing basis around which the others are arranged and related. In discussing syllabus choice and design, it should be kept in mind that the issue is not which type to choose but which types, and how to relate them to each other. PRACTICAL GUIDELINES TO SYLLABUS CHOICE AND DESIGN It is clear that no single type of content is appropriate for all teaching settings, and the needs and conditions of each setting are so idiosyncratic that specific recommendations for combination are not possible. In addition, the process of designing and implementing an actual syllabus warrants a separate volume. Several books are available that address the process of syllabus design and implementation both practically and theoretically (see For Further Reading section; the full-length monograph includes a 13-item annotated bibliography of basic works on syllabus design and a 67-item reference list). These books can help language course designers make decisions for their own programs. However, a set of guidelines for the process is provided below. Ten steps in preparing a practical language teaching syllabus:
1. Determine, to the extent possible, what outcomes are desired for the students in the instructional program. That is, as exactly and realistically as possible, define what the students should be able to do as a result of the instruction.
2. Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their likelihood of leading to the outcomes desired. Several rankings may be necessary if outcomes are complex.
3. Evaluate available resources in expertise (for teaching, needs analysis, materials choice and production, etc.), in materials, and in training for teachers.
4. Rank the syllabi relative to available resources. That is, determine what syllabus types would be the easiest to implement given available resources.
5. Compare the lists made under Nos. 2 and 4. Making as few adjustments to the earlier list as possible, produce a new ranking based on the resources' constraints.
6. Repeat the process, taking into account the constraints contributed by teacher and student factors described earlier.
7. Determine a final ranking, taking into account all the information produced by the earlier steps.
8. Designate one or two syllabus types as dominant and one or two as secondary.
9. Review the question of combination or integration of syllabus types and determine how combinations will be achieved and in what proportion.
10. Translate decisions into actual teaching units.
In making practical decisions about syllabus design, one must take into consideration all the possible factors that might affect the teachability of a particular syllabus. By starting with an examination of each syllabus type, tailoring the choice and integration of the different types according to local needs, one may find a principled and practical solution to the problem of appropriateness and effectiveness in syllabus design.
FOR FURTHER READING Alexander, L.G. (1976). Where do we go from here: A reconsideration of some basic assumptions affecting course design. "English Language Teaching," 30(2), 89-103. Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1986). "Course design: Developing programs and materials for language learning." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gattegno, C. (1972). "Teaching foreign languages in schools: The silent way (2nd ed.)." New York: Educational Solutions. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 157 403)
Krahnke, K.J. (1981). "Incorporating communicative instruction into academic preparation ESL curricula." (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 210 915)
Mohan, B. (1979). Relating language teaching and content teaching. "TESOL Quarterly," 13(2), 171-82.
Steiner, F. (1975). "Performing with objectives." Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
ABOUT THE MONOGRAPH
"Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Teaching," by Karl Krahnke, includes chapters on the place of the syllabus in language teaching, six types of language teaching syllabi, and choosing and integrating syllabi, as well as individual chapters devoted to each of the six types of syllabi defined here.
Contexts, prompts and methods used in grammar presentation in the language classroom:
Model sentences for oral practice + picture e.g. The butcher's got some meat. He hasn't got any lamb. Contrasting sentence pairs.
Question & Answere.g. pattern practice drills of both the "meaningless" and "meaningful" variety.
Dialoguese.g. A. I'd like some bacon, please. B. I'm sorry, we haven't got any. Streamline Departures - Yes, dear. Did you get any bread?
Situationse.g. I'm going to pack / take a bus to….. Robert O'Neill's "English in Situations" See also the situations and conversations in Kernel Intermediate. Julia.
Demonstratione.g. prepositions of place - I'm going to put the cassette tape into the cassette player.
Textse.g. The sun shines more in Spain than in England. Contextualization.
Grammatical explanations- e.g. "some" used when the quantity is definite for plural or uncountable"
Diagrams- e.g. Time Line for Present Perfect v Past Simple
Drawings
Translation
Grammatical explanations in student's mother tongue
Students' suggestions- e.g. activation of previous language knowledge through The Silent Way
The question of authenticity as applied to learners at different levels AUTHENTICITY - REAL COMMUNICATION
EXAM TITLE: Some extremists argue that no language used in a classroom can be "real" because of the very fact that it is used in a classroom. Others would argue that classroom language is as real as any other language. In other words, the language teacher need not make any concessions towards authenticity. What in your view are the criteria that make the use of language in a classroom "real" and what kinds of activity do these criteria give rise to? (Question from David Jones' RSA Course in Stockholm).
It is probable that much of the criticism of "language used in the classroom" has arisen as a result of the limited view of language which underlies many syllabuses.
To Teach or Not to Teach (Grammar)—No Longer the Question
There was a time, not so long ago, when virtually every high school English teacher who heard the word "grammar" could immediately recall Warriner's, diagramming sentences, and endless skill and drill exercises.
These teachers embraced the notion of prescriptive (also called traditional or school) grammar. Grammar was taught as a discrete set of rigid rules to be memorized, practiced, and followed.
During the height of the whole language movement, when teaching grammar in isolation became taboo, these teachers were left frustrated and baffled by the lack of grammar instruction in the classroom.
English teachers of later generations, on the other hand, joined the profession embracing ideas of descriptive (also called transformational) grammar. These teachers believed that grammar instruction should be matched to the purpose of the user. Teachers found descriptive grammar theories to be more flexible, reflecting actual usage and self-expression over "correct" structures.
Some people credit the descriptive approach with a general loosening of rules regarding grammatical structures that were once considered unacceptable, such as split infinitives.
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Why is speaking often regarded as the most important of the four language skills? Perhaps because, as Penny Ur (1996) says, 'people who know a language are referred to as 'speakers' of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing; and many if not most foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak.'
What is the main objective of teaching speaking?
The single most important reason for teaching speaking is to develop oral fluency, that is, the ability to express oneself intelligibly, reasonably accurately and without undue hesitation. Donn Byrne (1976) argues that to meet this objective learners will have to be brought from the stage where they merely imitate a model or respond to cues to the point where they can use the language to express their own ideas and feelings (processes that must to a large extent be in simultaneous operation).
For oral fluency to be attained, learners will need two complementary levels of training. New! Learning to Communicate offers an introduction to these two levels: practice in the manipulation of the fixed elements of English (or accuracy-based elements like pronunciation) and practice in the expression of personal meaning (or fluency).
Grammar is often misunderstood in the language teaching field. The misconception lies in the view that grammar is a collection of arbitrary rules about static structures in the language. Further questionable claims are that the structures do not have to be taught, learners will acquire them on their own, or if the structures are taught, the lessons that ensue will be boring. Consequently, communicative and proficiency-based teaching approaches sometimes unduly limit grammar instruction. Of the many claims about grammar that deserve to be called myths, this digest will challenge ten.
1. Grammar is acquired naturally; it need not be taught.
It is true that some learners acquire second language grammar naturally without instruction. For example, there are immigrants to the United States who acquire proficiency in English on their own. This is especially true of young immigrants. However, this is not true for all learners. Among the same immigrant groups are learners who may achieve a degree of proficiency, but whose English is far from accurate. A more important question may be whether it is possible with instruction to help learners who cannot achieve accuracy in English on their own. It is also true that learning particular grammatical distinctions requires a great deal of time even for the most skilled learners. Carol Chomsky (1969) showed that native English speakers were still in the process of acquiring certain grammatical structures in English well into adolescence. Thus, another important question is whether it is possible to accelerate students' natural learning of grammar through instruction. Research findings can be brought to bear on this question from a variety of sources (see Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991). Pienemann (1984) demonstrated that subjects who received grammar instruction progressed to the next stage after a two-week period, a passage normally taking several months in untutored development. While the number of subjects studied was admittedly small, the finding, if corroborated, provides evidence of the efficacy of teaching over leaving acquisition to run its natural course. With regard to whether instruction can help learners acquire grammar they would not have learned on their own, some research, although not unequivocal, points to the value of form-focused instruction to improve learners' accuracy over what normally transpires when there is no focus on form (see Larsen-Freeman, 1995).
Age may not be as much of a hindrance as you may believe. In many societies, older people are viewed with respect, they often have more education and experience than those fresh out of university. Some societies may be more accepting than others, for example, Asia (in particular China and Taiwan) as well as some Latin American countries (such as Mexico) have been known to be more accommodating to mature teachers. Be aware than some countries may have age restrictions for visas and may vary between 55-65, so be sure to be honest with your employer beforehand. The good news is that in many countries, after spending a certain amount of time as a resident, you can become a permanent resident, thus reducing your need to renew your visa or be dependent on an employer for a visa.
Playing up any teaching or tutoring experience that you have is a great help. It doesn’t necessarily have to be in a classroom setting, induction of new employees, managing training sessions, and even running meetings are all useful in the teaching world. See Writing a Teaching CV for more tips on how to write a teaching CV.
Only you can decide whether teaching in another country is for you. Try looking at What's the Best Country to Teach English In? Remember that with teaching abroad, there are two things to keep in mind. First off, if you’re not a teacher, would you enjoy teaching? You can always try volunteering in your local community to teach new immigrants or tutor children or teenagers to see if teaching is something you would like to do. Remember that most teaching contracts are six months to a year, with the latter being more common. Be aware that setting up in a new country is expensive, just the plane ticket may be a couple months salary. So before you commit, make sure you are up to completing the contract. Find links for jobs in the Job Sites article.
Second, living in a different country can be fun and glamorous, but it can also be daunting. Culture shock starts to set in when you realise that things are different than what you expected. Everyone goes through culture shock, even if you go to a country where you know the language. Knowing about culture shock and how to deal with it can greatly help you. Read more about Culture Shock in this article. Going to live in another country is a great way to open your eyes to another culture, just be aware that you might have a couple of rocks along the way. If you/re ready for them and prepared to deal with them, then you’ll probably have the experience of a lifetime.
You will also have to take some practical concerns into consideration. Bear in mind that not all countries may equipped with facilities that you take for granted, such as elevators. An example of this is China, where only building with more than six floors need to have elevators. Teaching abroad is a wonderful experience and a great adventure, but with all new experiences, you will have to be prepared to put up with things that are different than you are used to. Take a look at the questions below , and if you can answer “yes” to the majority of them, then you’re up to the challenge of teaching overseas.
● Can you get around old streets, hills, steps or stairs made of rocks of bricks? ● Can you live in a place without central heating or AC? ● Is it ok for you to stand on your feet for a couple hours at a time? ● Will you be able to work with active young children, talkative teens, or tired adults? ● Are you up to playing games in class or moving around the room? ● If you need medicine or require a special diet, can you get this where you want to live? ● Are you up to the challenge of learning a new language (at least the basics) and about new customs?
So if you’re up to the challenge, what are you waiting for? Dust off your CV, start looking for jobs that interest you and apply. Before you know it, you’ll be about to embark on an experience that will make your friends and family turn green with envy.
The most successful teachers share some common characteristics. Here are the top six keys to being a successful teacher. Every teacher can benefit from focusing on these important qualities. Success in teaching, as in most areas of life, depends almost entirely on your attitude and your approach.
1. Sense of Humor
A sense of humor can help you become a successful teacher. Your sense of humor can relieve tense classroom situations before they become disruptions. A sense of humor will also make class more enjoyable for your students and possibly make students look forward to attending and paying attention. Most importantly, a sense of humor will allow you to see the joy in life and make you a happier person as you progress through this sometimes stressful career.
2. A Positive Attitude
A positive attitude is a great asset in life. You will be thrown many curve balls in life and especially in the teaching profession. A positive attitude will help you cope with these in the best way. For example, you may find out the first day of school that you are teaching Algebra 2 instead of Algebra 1. This would not be an ideal situation, but a teacher with the right attitude would try to focus on getting through the first day without negatively impacting the students.
3. High Expectations
An effective teacher must have high expectations. You should strive to raise the bar for your students. If you expect less effort you will receive less effort. You should work on an attitude that says that you know students can achieve to your level of expectations, thereby giving them a sense of confidence too. This is not to say that you should create unrealistic expectations. However, your expectations will be one of the key factors in helping students learn and achieve.
4. Consistency
In order to create a positive learning environment your students should know what to expect from you each day. You need to be consistent. This will create a safe learning environment for the students and they will be more likely to succeed. It is amazing that students can adapt to teachers throughout the day that range from strict to easy. However, they will dislike an environment in which the rules are constantly changing.
5. Fairness
Many people confuse fairness and consistency. A consistent teacher is the same person from day to day. A fair teacher treats students equally in the same situation. For example, students complain of unfairness when teachers treat one gender or group of students differently. It would be terribly unfair to go easier on the football players in a class than on the cheerleaders. Students pick up on this so quickly, so be careful of being labelled unfair. 6. Flexibility
One of the tenets of teaching should be that everything is in a constant state of change. Interruptions and disruptions are the norm and very few days are 'typical'. Therefore, a flexible attitude is important not only for your stress level but also for your students who expect you to be in charge and take control of any situation.
Student teachers are often placed into an awkward and stressful situation, not really sure of their authority and sometimes not even placed with veteran teachers who are much help. These tips can aid student teachers as they begin their first teaching assignments. Please note: these are not suggestions for how to approach the students but instead for how to most effectively succeed in your new teaching environment.
1. Be On Time
Punctuality is very important in the 'real world'. If you are late, you will definitely NOT start out on the right foot with your cooperating teacher. Even worse, if you arrive after a class has begun which you are supposed to be teaching, you are placing that teacher and yourself in an awkward situation.
As a teacher, you are a professional and you are supposed to dress accordingly. There is nothing wrong with over dressing during your student teaching assignments. The clothes do help lend you an air of authority, especially if you look awfully young. Further, your dress lets the coordinating teacher know of your professionalism and dedication to your assignment.
3. Be Flexible
Remember that the coordinating teacher has pressures placed upon them just as you have your own pressures to deal with. If you normally teach only 3 classes and the coordinating teacher asks that you take on extra classes one day because he has an important meeting to attend, look at this as your chance to get even further experience while impressing your dedication to your coordinating teacher.
4. Follow the School Rules
This might seem obvious to some but it is important that you do not break school rules. For example, if it is against the rules to chew gum in class, then do not chew it yourself. If the campus is 'smoke-free', do not light up during your lunch period. This is definitely not professional and would be a mark against you when it comes time for your coordinating teacher and school to report on your abilities and actions.
5. Plan Ahead
If you know you will need copies for a lesson, do not wait until the morning of the lesson to get them completed. Many schools have procedures that MUST be followed for copying to occur. If you fail to follow these procedures you will be stuck without copies and will probably look unprofessional at the same time.
6. Befriend the Office Staff
This is especially important if you believe that you will be staying in the area and possibly trying for a job at the school where you are teaching. These people's opinions of you will have an impact on whether or not you are hired. They can also make your time during student teaching much easier to handle. Don't underestimate their worth.
7. Maintain Confidentiality
Remember that if you are taking notes about students or classroom experiences to turn in for grades, you should either not use their names or change them to protect their identities. You never know who you are teaching or what their relationship might be to your instructors and coordinators.
8. Don't Gossip
It might be tempting to hang out in the teacher lounge and indulge in gossip about fellow teachers. However, as a student teacher this would be a very risky choice. You might say something you could regret later. You might find out information that is untrue and clouds your judgement. You might even offend someone without realizing it. Remember, these are teachers you could be working with again some day in the future.
9. Be Professional With Fellow Teachers
Do not interrupt other teachers' classes without an absolutely good reason. When you are speaking with your coordinating teacher or other teachers on campus, treat them with respect. You can learn a lot from these teachers, and they will be much more likely to share with you if they feel that you are genuinely interested in them and their experiences.
10. Don't Wait to the Last Minute to Call in Sick
You will probably get sick at some point during your student teaching and will need stay home for the day. You must remember that the regular teacher will have to take over the class during your absence. If you wait until the last minute to call in, this could leave them in an awkward bind making them look bad to the students. Call as soon as you believe you will not be able to make it to class.
· To do everything, we use different strategies. The strategy will affect the results.
· Learning a language needs to perform different strategies.
· Language has different areas. For every area, we should use different strategies.
· Students must be familiar with different strategies for the different areas of the language.
· As teachers we can help students to develop those strategies that enhance learning. To do so we need to:
· Identify the most efficient strategies
· Make the students aware of their current strategies
· Present alternative strategies with their advantages and disadvantages
An Example: Vocabulary Learning
· Learning a language means learning words, but how?
· If we consider the word as a group of letters, learner has to learn the spelling. Good spellers see the words in their minds. We should teach learners to think about letters. It will help them to develop a “seeing” strategy.
· If we consider the word as a sequence of sounds, learner should use auditory strategy: saying it aloud and silently, paying attention to a native speaker when it is said by him, recording his/her voice and listening to it.
· If we consider the word as a label for a shared meaning, students can link the word to the internal image they have for that concept, like visual information.
· And if we consider the word as a trigger for all personal internal experiences one links to that word, students should make the words their own, and then they really learn them. Learning a word is then much more than just memorizing and spelling, it becomes a process of adding learning to learning.
· In-depth learning of a word is a matter of time, of reprocessing it and using it in many ways.
· Humanistic approach provides a link between language leaning and learner’s inner world.
· As a whole learning a word entails learning different pieces of content, meaning, spelling, pronunciation, and personal interpretation. Each of those pieces requires different strategies.
· The task of the teacher is to expand students’ awareness of different techniques by studying how each of them learns and by exploring with them the different strategies.
· When students learn that there are many ways to learn, they will search for those that fits their needs better.
Culture Shock can be difficult to deal with, it can affect you at work and in your daily life. The best thing to do is to be aware of culture shock and how to deal with it. Try reading up on culture shock before leaving and understand how you can deal with it. If you’re prepared for what to expect, it will make overcoming culture shock that much easier. Having pictures from home, talking to people in your native language, talking a walk in the park, or even sleeping can all help with culture shock. Read more about getting ready to go overseas in Moving to Another Country.
Learning the language is probably one of the most important steps you can take to getting accustomed to your host country. Even if you speak the language of the country you’re moving to, you’ll find yourself going through culture shock. It starts with fascination with everything and seeing things through rose coloured glass and then goes to not being able to accept anything. Though people usually grow to accept things over time, even after years of living in the country, small things might still frustrate you, but with time and effort, you can get over culture shock. Read more tips in Learning the Local Lingo.
If people speak English where you work, you’ll probably face less problems. But you will still have to deal with culturally issues, such as greetings, time, personal space, or dealing with co-workers and management. Observe how other people interact at work and when in doubt, ask others what you should do in a given situation.
Bureaucracy is often less organized in other countries, people love paperwork and bureaucracy. Standing in line to do simple things, such as pay the bills in common, not to mention going through immigration. Lots of people mean that you might have to wait for a couple of hours just to pay bills. If you have to get a work visa, be prepared to run around to lots of different places to get notarisations, legalisations, and translations.
You’ll have to be a patient person to deal with all this paper pushing. I personally think that they do this to create jobs. So if it helps you to think that all this paperwork allows someone to feed their family, then all the better. If you’re not a patient person, bring something to do or find something to do. Let’s say you’re in the bank and you just got ticket 301 and they’re on ticket 199. You probably have a good hour wait. You can either stay in the bank, read a book, listen to music, correct papers, or lesson plan, or leave the bank. If you leave the bank, you can get other errands done, maybe grab a coffee, go to the internet, call a friend, or exchange money. After about 45 minutes, pop back over to the bank and see what number they’re on. If they’re close to yours, stick around, if not, head back out and get more errands done. Be patient, smile, and bring something to do to pass the time. If you’re nice to those who are helping you, they’ll be nice to you and more likely to help you out.
You can, change the way you dress, act and speak. Try wearing less casual clothes. Tank tops, shorts, flip-flops, cargo pants, swishy pants, tennis shoes, hats, and sunglasses are pretty casual wear in many countries. And when you decide to go on a trip or out to see some sites, forget the cameras, guidebooks, and maps.
The way you act is also key, don’t try to call attention to yourself, by looking lost or staring at everything around you. The way you speak can also go a long way. If you don’t speak the language of the host country, that’s fine, but try to make an effort to at least learn the basics. If you have to speak English, don’t shout or speak to people like they’re stupid. Use simple words and gestures. If they can help you, great, if not try asking someone else. So if you take into account the problems you may face, you’ll be prepared and more ready to conquer them during your time abroad. Read more about fitting in in the article, Respectful Travel. Learn other tips about life in different countries by reading Living in a Foreign Country.
Stage theory of development - older children think qualitatively
differently to younger children. In other words, at each successive
stage, it's not just a matter of doing something better, but of doing a
different thing altogether.
4 stages:
– Stage 1: Sensorimoter Period (0-2 years)
– experiences that help children adapt to new environments -
adaptation: an organism’s ability to fit in with it’s environment
(through the process of assimilation and accommodation).
Cognitive theory assumes that responses are also the result of insight and intentional patterning.
Insight can be directed to (a) the concepts behind language i.e. to traditional grammar. It can also be directed to (b) language as an operation - sets of communicative functions.
A variety of activities practised in new situations will allow assimilation of what has already been learnt or partly learnt. It will also create further situations for which existing language resources are inadequate and must accordingly be modified or extended - "accommodation". This ensures an awareness and a continuing supply of learning goals as well as aiding the motivation of the learner.
Cognitive theory therefore acknowledges the role of mistakes. See Dakin's Novish lesson in which he sets deliberate traps in "The Language Laboratory and Language Learning" by Julian Dakin published by Longman 1973. Dakin: "We must design our lessons and language laboratory tapes so as to invite the learner to make the minimum number of mistakes consonant with, and conducive to, learning new rules. Equally important to the principles underlying the use of "meaningful drills" and also relevant to the role of mistakes in cognotive theory is the association of mentalism with notionalism.
An objective of organizing a research paper is to allow people to read
your work selectively. When I research a topic, I may be interested in
just the methods, a specific result, the interpretation, or perhaps I
just want to see a summary of the paper to determine if it is relevant
to my study. To this end, many journals require the following sections,
submitted in the order listed, each section to start on a new page.
There are variations of course. Some journals call for a combined
results and discussion, for example, or include materials and methods
after the body of the paper. The well known journal Science does away
with separate sections altogether, except for the abstract.
Your papers are to adhere to the form and style required for the
Journal of Biological Chemistry, requirements that are shared by many
journals in the life sciences.
General style
Specific editorial requirements for submission of a manuscript will always supersede instructions in these general guidelines.
At least one specific theme has emerged in each of my past fifteen years of teaching
pronunciation and phonetics at Taiwan University, based on observations of the
skills – and weaknesses – the students bring to class. This paper provides an
overview of ten of these core themes and how they can be incorporated into
pronunciation teaching. Student improvement in each of the areas is also reviewed,
along with student feedback on the learning process and effectiveness of the training.
(1) Understandable or nativelike? There are two main approaches in pronunciation
teaching: one is to try to get the students to develop a pronunciation style that is clear
and understandable to both native and non-native speakers, but not necessarily
nativelike. This approach does not aim for perfection, considering it too ambitious and
perhaps even unattainable a goal for most learners. It also is open to incorporating
features from different dialects of the language, e.g. General American (GA) and
Standard Southern British (SSB).
The second approach is the “100%” approach. The teacher offers a model of one
dialectal variety of the target language as a model and expects perfection or near
perfection from the students; and also that they learn one variety consistently and not
mix in features from other dialects as they please, nor that they use personally
convenient substitutions for certain sounds, e.g. [l] for initial [ð], in the case of Taiwan
students.
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) - developed in the 1970’s by Richard
Bandler and John Grinder - is an approach that aims to enhance the
effectiveness of communication and facilitate learning and personal
development. It is becoming increasingly familiar in formal education,
professional development, and informal learning. A recent book called
`NLP for Teachers’ (Churches & Terry 2007) has received a very
favourable review from the distinguished Canadian scholar, Michael
Fullan. NLP is also a popular approach to coaching (e.g. Henwood &
Lister 2007) and is also a recognised mode of psychotherapy in the UK
[i].
Evidence of the application of NLP to education can be found in
practitioner magazines and journals [ii], websites [iii] and discussion
groups, and at conferences. How widespread or popular NLP has become in
practice is difficult to say with precision, though. As an indication
the number of people to have been trained to `Practitioner’ level in
the UK since NLP’s inception seems likely to number at least 50,000
[iv]. Trainings in NLP are found across the world, principally in
countries where English is the first language, but including Norway,
Spain and Brazil [v]. There is no unified structure to the NLP
practitioner community. Probably in common with other emergent fields
there is diversity in both practice and organisation, and there are
resulting tensions.
Social Antimony in Discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky
Michael Cole, University of California, San
Diego
James V. Wertsch, Washington University, St.
Louis
Ever since the publication of
the first translation of Vygotsky's Thought and Language (reborn as Thinking
and Speech 25 years later) there has been an ongoing debate about the
relationship between the ideas of Vygotsky and Piaget. In the brief space
available, we have no interest in arguing the virtues of one man's ideas over the
other. Instead, we will suggest that by and large commentators on the
differences between these two thinkers have placed too narrow an emphasis on
their ideas about the primacy of individual psychogenesis versus sociogenesis
of mind while neglecting what we believe is a cardinal difference between them:
their views concerning the importance of culture, in particular, the role of
mediation of action through artifacts, on the development of mind.....................
آموزش زبان انگلیسی هر چند سالهاست که در برنامه درسی مدارس ایران جای
داشته، اما همواره از کاستیهای بسیاری رنج برده و هیچگاه کارآمدی و نتیجه دلخواه
را به همراه نداشته است.
آموزش زبان انگلیسی هر چند سالهاست که در برنامه درسی
مدارس ایران جای داشته، اما همواره از کاستیهای بسیاری رنج برده و هیچگاه کارآمدی
و نتیجه دلخواه را به همراه نداشته است.
بهطوری که «الفباآموزی» و «دیکتهگویی» نتوانسته کوچکترین
شوقی برای یادگیری در دانش آموزان یا حتی دانشجویان ایجاد کند.
این در شرایطی است که کارشناسان زبان آموزی، بهترین راه
آموزش زبان خارجی را از کل به جز، یعنی مشابه آموزش زبان مادری به کودک میدانند.
«فراگیری، شهامت گفتوگو و پرسیدن و تلفظ صحیح»، نخستین مرحلهای است که هر زبان
آموز باید آن را بگذراند تا به مراحل«خـواندن و نوشتن» برسد.
در این میان، استاندارد تعداد فراگیران زبان خارجی در یککلاس
بین ١٦ تا ١٨نفر است. این در حالی است که در بیشتر مدارس و دانشگاههای ایران، این
رقم به ۳۰ تا ۴۰ نفر میرسد. از سوی دیگرساعتهای آموزش زبان در آموزشگاههای ایران
برای استمرار در فراگیری بسیار کم است که باید دست کم به ۸ ساعت در هفته افزایش یابد.
آموزش زبانهای خارجی بهویژه انگلیسی موضوعی است که در ایران
دهها سال رواج دارد این در حالی است که زبان عربی همواره بهعنوان زبان دوم به
دانش آموزان و دانشجویان ایرانی تدریس میشود اما آموزش زبان انگلیسی در یکدهه
گذشته از لحاظ کمی رشدی بسیار داشته و آموزشگاههای زبان آموزی در گوشه و کنار
شهرهای بزرگ ایران فراوان به چشم میخورند.
از قرن نوزدهم میلادی که مدارس نوین در ایران شکل گرفت،
تدریس زبانهای اروپایی به ویژه فرانسوی و بعدها انگلیسی جزئی از برنامه ثابت درسی
مدارس متوسطه و عالی بوده است. هم اکنون، تمامی ایرانیانی که تحصیلاتی دست کم در
سطح متوسطه دارند، دست کم۶ سال وقت را برای آموختن زبان انگلیسی صرف کرده اند.
در دانشگاههای ایران نیز علاوه بر اینکه در برنامه تمام
رشتههای تحصیلی، واحدهای آموزش زبان در سطوح عمومی و تخصصی گنجانده شده، امکان
آموختن چندین زبان خارجی، حتی تا سطح دکترا وجود دارد.
با این حال، اغلب دانش آموختگان مدارس و دانشگاههای ایران
نمیتوانند به زبانی که سالها به فراگرفتن آن پرداختهاند، صحبت کنندو این مشکل
حتی در میان بسیاری از کسانی که دانش آموخته رشته زبانهای خارجی اند و سالها به
شکل تخصصی و در سطح دانشگاهی به آموختن زبان پرداخته اند نیز وجود دارد!
مهرداد بیعتی که خود دانش آموخته زبان انگلیسی در مقطع
کارشناسی ارشد است و سابقه آموزش زبان انگلیسی در دانشگاه را هم دارد، دلیل اصلی
ناتوانی زبان آموختگان ایرانی برای گفتوگو به زبان خارجی که آموخته اند را تمرکز
برنامه تدریس زبان خارجی در مدارس ایرانی بر ترجمه و دستور زبان و آماده سازی «دیکته
وار» دانش آموزان برای آزمون سراسری دانشگاهها میداند.
او که دانش آموخته رشته زبان انگلیسی است میگوید که حتی
برخی استادانی که در دانشگاه به تدریس دروس تخصصی برای دانشجویان این رشته میپردازند
بهخوبی قادر به تلفظ صحیح زبان نیستند و کسی با تحصیل در رشته زبان انگلیسی نمیتواند
گفتوگو به این زبان را بیاموزد.
بیعتی، میگوید، اغلب دانشجویان زبان خارجی در دانشگاههای
ایران، از دوران راهنمایی و دبیرستان در آموختن درس زبان خارجی ضعیف بوده و برنامه
دانشگاهها نیز به گونهای نیست که بتواند این ضعف را برطرف کند.
برخی نیز روش تدریس در آموزشگاههای آزاد زبان انگلیسی را
مؤثرتر و مفیدتر میدانند و میگویند تنها آن دسته از دانش آموختگان زبان انگلیسی
میتوانند بهخوبی به این زبان گفتوگو کنند که علاوه بر دانشگاه در آموزشگاههای
پیشرفته زبان نیز تحصیل کنند.
وحید رضا که در آموزشگاهی در تهران زبان انگلیسی تدریس میکند،
میگوید، بهدلیل اینکه آموزشگاهها بر «فنون پیشرفته گفتگو» تمرکزمیکنند، ولی در
دانشگاهها بیشتر بر پیچیدگیهای دستوری و زبانشناسی تأکید میشود، اغلب کسانی که
در آموزشگاههای آزاد تحصیل کرده اند از دانش آموختگان دانشگاهها برای گفت وگو به
زبان انگلیسی موفقترند.
● گذر از شیوههای سنتی
به نظر میرسد در جهانی که روز بهروز به دهکدهای بزرگتر
تبدیل میشود، لزوم بازنگری در نظام آموزش زبانهای خارجی در ایران به موضوعی
محتوم بدل شده. به نظر میرسد گسترش فرهنگ و ادبیات ایرانی و صدور محصولات آن به
کشورهای دیگر و ارتباط مؤثر با دیگران در گروی فراگیری یک زبان خارجی بهویژه انگلیسی
باشد.
● ساعت آموزشی بیشتر شود
آموزش زبانهای خارجی از سال اول راهنمایی آغاز میشود و
دست کم تا پایان دبیرستان به مدت ۶ سال ادامه پیدا میکند. ساعتهای اختصاص داده شده
به این درس بین ۲ تا ۴ ساعت درسی در هفته، یعنی ۹۰ تا ۱۴۰ دقیقه است و کتابهای زبان را هم وزارت آموزش و
پرورش بهطور هماهنگ و یکنواخت تهیه و در سراسر ایران پخش میکند.
انتظار میرود همانطور که هر دانشآموز متوسط ایرانی از
سواد متعارف یا حداقلی برخوردار است، سواد قابل قبول زبانی هم داشته باشد. این
انتظار غیرعادی نیست ولی با توجه به مستندات پیشرو، غیرواقع بینانه است.
آیا هدف از آموزش زبان انگلیسی یا عربی در مدرسه مشخص شده
است؟ آیا این هدف واقع بینانه است؟ آیا این هدف به نیازهای درازمدت جوانان پاسخ میدهد
یا تنها نیازهای مقطعی را دنبال میکند؟
بی گمان در سطح سیاستگذاری و برنامه ریزی کلان که ممکن
است کوتاهمدت هم باشد، ابتدا باید هدف هر موضوع مشخص و سپس راههای علمی دستیابی
به آن طراحی شود؛ دردسر بزرگ از اینجا آغاز میشود.
بر نظام آموزشی ایران مدتهاست که هیولایی به نام کنکور
سایه افکنده، دوره آموزش در مدرسه به گذر از تونلی میماند که در انتهایش کنکور آینده
و راه زندگی را تا حد بسیاری مشخص میکند و در چنین شرایطی گذر موفقیت آمیزاز تونل
به تنها هدف تحصیل و سواد آموزی تبدیل میشود.
روش آموزش زبان انگلیسی در مدارس ایران برای پاسخگویی به
این هدف بسیارجالب است! آموزش زبان، بدون در نظر گرفتن طبیعت آن، به شیوهای فرمولی
و دستوری همچون فیزیک و شیمی تدریس میشود. فرمولهایی که در درسهای علمی به کار
حل مسئله میآیند، در درس زبان تنها به درد انتخاب پاسخ پرسشهای چند گزینهای میخورند
و بس.
اما آیا این هدف، تعریفی واقع بینانه از آموزش زبان بینالمللی
به جوان ایرانی است؟ پاسخ بیتردید منفی است. جوان ایرانی میخواهد از امکانات دنیای
مدرن بهره ببرد، از اطلاعات اینترنت استفاده کند، کتابهای خارجی بخواند، فیلم به
زبان اصلی ببیند، برای ادامه تحصیل به خارج از کشور برود و سخن کوتاه، خود را
شهروند برابر در جهان بداند.
با این تعریف از هدف آموزش زبان که وسیله ایجاد ارتباط
است، لزوم بازنگری در سیاست و برنامه ریزی آموزشی آشکارتر میشود. در واقع یادگیری
زبان وسیلهای است برای رسیدن به هدفی دیگر که ایجاد ارتباط است.
● زودتر و بهتر شروع کنیم
شیوه سنتی و متداول آموزش زبان، زبان آموز را با مفاهیم و
قوانین پیچیده زبان آشنا میکند ولی این آشنایی هیچ کمکی در به کارگیری زبان نمیکند.پس
در آموزش زبان باید به جنبه کاربردی آن توجه کرد، دانش آموز را در موقعیت واقعی
زبانی قرار داد و مهارتهای منفعل شنیدن، خواندن و مهارتهای فعال حرف زدن و نوشتن
را به صورت موازی آموزش داد.
● از ابتدایی شروع کنیم
از سوی دیگرزبان فرایند پیچیده ذهن بشر است، یادگیری زبان
هرچه از سنین کمتر شروع شود، بازده بهتری دارد، اگر زبان آموز زبان دوم را به شیوهای
طبیعی و ناخودآگاه، با فرایندی شبیه زبان مادری فرا گیرد، نتیجه بهتر میشود، پس
لازم است آموزش زبان از دوره ابتدایی آغاز شود.
به یاد داشته باشیم که زبان و فرهنگ پدیدههای به هم تنیدهای
اند، برخی بر این باورند که میتوان زبان را از فرهنگ اصلی خود تهی کرد و با فرهنگ
دیگری در هم آمیخت، باور نگارنده این است که بومی سازی بیرویه در محتوا، شکل و
تصاویر کتابهای آموزشی زبان، انگیزه یادگیری را در زبان آموز کاهش میدهد.
در برنامه رسمی مدارس و دانشگاه های ایران چه تغییری باید
صورت گیرد تا آموزش زبان انگلیسی به شکل کارآمدتر و نتیجه بخشی انجام شود؟
The work of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) has become the foundation of much
research and theory in cognitive development over the past several
decades, particularly of what has become known as Social Development
Theory.
Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction
in the development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1985), as he
believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of
"making meaning."
Unlike Piaget's notion that children's development must necessarily
precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and
universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized,
specifically human psychological function" (1978, p. 90). In other
words, social learning tends to precede (i.e. come before) development.
Vygotsky has developed a socio-cultural approach to cognitive
development. He developed his theories at around the same time as
Piaget was starting to develop his theories (1920's and 30's), but he
died at the age of 38 and so his theories are incomplete - although
some of his writings are still being translated from Russian.
No single principle (such as Piaget's equilibration) can account for
development. Individual development cannot be understood without
reference to the social and cultural context within which it is
embedded. Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin
in social processes.
Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:
1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting/shaping
cognitive development - this contradicts Piaget's view of universal
stages and content of development. (Vygotsky does not refer to stages
in the way that Piaget does).
2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors
contributing to cognitive development (Piaget is criticised for
underestimating this).
3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of
language in cognitive development (again Piaget is criticised for lack
of emphasis on this).
1. Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation
Like Piaget, Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic
materials/abilities for intellectual development - Piaget focuses on
motor reflexes and sensory abilities.
Humanism is a psychological approach that emphasises the study of the whole person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behaviour not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual's behaviour is connected to his inner feelings and self-image.
Humanistic psychology developed as a rebellion against what some psychologists saw as limitations of the behaviourist and psychodynamic psychology. The Humanistic approach is thus often called the “third force” in psychology after psychoanalysis and behaviourism.
Humanistic psychology rejected the behaviourist approach which is characterised as deterministic, focused on reinforcement of stimulus-response behaviour and heavily dependent on animal research.
Humanistic psychology also rejected the psychoanalytic approach because it also is deterministic, with unconscious irrational and instinctive forces determining human thought and behaviour. Both behaviourism and psychoanalysis are regarded as dehumanising by humanistic psychologists.
Humanistic psychology expanded its influence throughout the 1970s and the 1980s. It's impact can be understood in terms of three major areas:
1) It offered a new set of values for approaching an understanding of human nature and the human condition.
2) It offered an expanded horizon of methods of inquiry in the study of human behaviour.
3) It offered a broader range of more effective methods in the professional practice of psychotherapy.
Humanistic Psychology Assumptions
Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumptions that phenomenology is central and that people have free will. Personal agency is the humanistic term for the exercise of free will. Personal agency refers to the choices we make in life, the paths we go down and their consequences. A further assumption is then added - people are basically good, and have an innate need to make themselves and the world better. The Humanistic approach emphasises the personal worth of the individual, the centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings. The approach is optimistic and focuses on noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and despair.
Both Rogers and Maslow regarded personal growth and fulfilment in life as a basic human motive. This means that each person, in different ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously enhance themselves. This has been captured by the term self-actualisation which is about psychological growth, fulfilment and satisfaction in life. However, Rogers and Maslow both describe different ways of how self-actualisation can be achieved.
Central to the humanistic theories of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the subjective, conscious experiences of the individual. The humanistic psychologists argued that objective reality is less important than a person's subjective perception and subjective understanding of the world. Because of this, Rogers and Maslow placed little value on scientific psychology especially the use of the psychology laboratory to investigate both human and other animal behaviour.
Humanism rejects scientific methodology like experiments and typically uses qualitative research methods. For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews and unstructured observations. Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in depth, the ways in which people think or feel (e.g. case studies).
The humanist's view human beings as fundamentally different from other animals mainly because humans are conscious beings capable of thought, reason and language. For humanistic psychologists’ research on animals, such as rats, pigeons, or monkeys held little value. Research on such animals can tell us, so they argued, very little about human thought, behaviour and experience. Humanistic psychologists rejected a rigorous scientific approach to psychology because they saw it as dehumanising and unable to capture the richness of conscious experience. In many ways the rejection of scientific psychology in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was a backlash to the dominance of the behaviourist approach in North American psychology.
The History of Humanistic Psychology
* Maslow (1943) developed a hierarchical theory of human motivation.
* Rogers (1946) publishes Significant aspects of client-centered therapy (also called person centred therapy).
* In 1957 and 1958, at the invitation of Abraham Maslow and Clark Moustakas, two meetings were held in Detroit among psychologists who were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a more meaningful, more humanistic vision.
* In 1961, with the sponsorship of Brandeis University, this movement was formally launched as the American Association for Humanistic Psychology.
* The first issue of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology appeared in the Spring of 1961.
Meaningful Learning Model By Jack Hassard, Georgia State University, emeritus. SOURCE: Jack Hassard's Web Site Copyright: Source Copyright. Included here under Fair Use Doctrine for teaching purposes.
2.10 Meaningful Learning Model
David Ausubel is a psychologist who advanced a theory which contrasted meaningful learning from rote learning. In Ausubel's view, to learn meaningfully, students must relate new knowledge (concepts and propositions) to what they already know. He proposed the notion of an advanced organizer as a way to help students link their ideas with new material or concepts. Ausubel's theory of learning claims that new concepts to be learned can be incorporated into more inclusive concepts or ideas. These more inclusive concepts or ideas are advance organizers. Advance organizers can be verbal phrases (the paragraph you are about to read is about Albert Einstein), or a graphic. In any case, the advance organizer is designed to provide, what cognitive psychologists call, the "mental scaffolding: to learn new information.
Meaningful Learning Contrasted with Rote Learning Type of Learning - Characteristics
Meaningful Learning:
Non-arbitrary, non-verbatim, substantive incorporation of new knowledge into cognitive structure.
Deliberate effort to link new knowledge with higher order concepts in cognitive structure
Learning related to experiences with events or objects.
Affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning.
Rote Learning:
Arbitrary, verbatim, non-substantive incorporation of new knowledge into cognitive structure.
No effort to integrate new knowledge with existing concepts in cognitive structure.
Learning not related to experience with events or objects.
No affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning.
Ausubel believed that learning proceeds in a top-down, or deductive manner. Ausubel's theory consists of three phases, presentation of an advance organizer, presentation of learning task or material, and strengthening the cognitive organization. Ausubel's Model of Learning: The main elements of Ausubel's model are shown in Figure 2.34. (Can't copy it. jeanne)
Phase One: Advance Organizer
Phase Two: Presentation of Learning Task or Material
Phase Three: Strengthening Cognitive Organization
Clarify aim of the lesson
Present the organizer
Relate organizer to students' knowledge
Make the organization of the new material explicit.
Make logical order of learning material explicit.
Present material and engage students in meaningful learning activities.
Relate new information to advance organizer
Promote active reception learning.
Concept mapping for meaningful learning Novak and Gowan (1984) have developed a theory of instruction that is based on Ausubel's meaningful learning principles that incorporates "concept maps" to represent meaningful relationships between concepts and propositions. A cognitive map is a "kind of visual road map showing some of the pathways we may take to connect meanings of concepts." According to Novak and Gowan concept maps should be hierarchical; the more general, more inclusive concepts should be at the top of the map, and the more specific, less inclusive concepts at the bottom of the map. An an example of this hierarchical principle of concept maps is shown in the concept map of the food chain.
The concept map of the food chain is done in Inspiration I suspect, and I don't have time to go hunt for that program, so can't copy it. We'll construct a concept map in statistics in the Fall. See if you can locate it at Hassard's site. jeanne
The concept map is a tool that science teachers can use to determine the nature of students' existing ideas The map can be used to make evident the key concepts to be learned and suggest linkages between the new information to be learned and what the student already knows. Concept maps can precede instruction, and be used by the teacher to generate a meaningful discussion of student ideas. Following the initial construction and discussion of concept maps, instructional activities can be designed to explore alternative frameworks, resulting in cognitive accommodation.
Meaningful learning refers to the concept that the learned knowledge (lets say a fact) is fully understood by the individual and that the individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored facts (stored in your brain that is). For understanding this concept, it is good to contrast meaningful learning with the much less desirable, rote learning.
Rote learning is where you memorize something without full understanding and you don't know how the new information relates to your other stored knowledge. For our example, lets say we learn 5 facts in a math course during a full semester by rote learning. This can be illustrated by the figure below. The 5 facts (labeled 1-5) are stored in memory as separate items although in real life they are related to each other. When the student rote learned these facts, the brain stored them as distinct, unrelated knowledge that can only be recalled individually (one fact at a time). When this student recalls one fact the other 4 facts are not recalled (or activated) at that moment. In other words, thinking about fact #5 does not lead the student to think about facts #1-4. Contrast that to the below discussion on recall after meaningful learning.
When meaningful learning occurs (using our example of 5 math facts) the facts are stored in a relational manner (see figure below). That is, the brain stores them together because they are related to each other. Now, when one fact is recalled, the other facts are also recalled at that moment (or shortly thereafter). In other words, recalling fact #5 activates the memory for facts #2 and #4, and this in turn leads to recalling facts #1 and #3. This phenomenon is called the spread of activation. This is the gist of meaningful learning. Problem-solving for this student would be easier than for the student who rote learned the same 5 facts. Which one of these students would you like to hire for your company? Some suggestions on how to ensure meaningful learning appear below the figure.
Suggestions:
1. Make sure what you learn is in your proximal zone.
2. If in doubt, ask the instructor how some new knowledge is related to other course material.
3. Have a study partner ask you questions that require recall of related material.
4. Make a figure that illustrates what you should know about a specific topic and its related material.
In recent years, researchers have formed a strong consensus on the importance of engaged learning in schools and classrooms. This consensus, together with a recognition of the changing needs of the 21st century, has stimulated the development of specific indicators of engaged learning. Jones, Valdez, Nowakowski, and Rasmussen (1994) developed the indicators described below. These indicators of engaged learning can act as a "compass" for reform instruction, helping educators chart an instructional course and maintain an orientation based on a vision of engaged learning and what it looks like in the classroom and community.
1. Indicator: Vision of Engaged Learning
What does engaged learning look like? Successful, engaged learners are responsible for their own learning. These students are self-regulated and able to define their own learning goals and evaluate their own achievement. They are also energized by their learning; their joy of learning leads to a lifelong passion for solving problems, understanding, and taking the next step in their thinking. These learners are strategic in that they know how to learn and are able to transfer knowledge to solve problems creatively. Engaged learning also involves being collaborative--that is, valuing and having the skills to work with others.
2. Indicator: Tasks for Engaged Learning
In order to have engaged learning, tasks need to be challenging, authentic, and multidisciplinary. Such tasks are typically complex and involve sustained amounts of time. They are authentic in that they correspond to the tasks in the home and workplaces of today and tomorrow. Collaboration around authentic tasks often takes place with peers and mentors within school as well as with family members and others in the real world outside of school. These tasks often require integrated instruction that incorporates problem-based learning and curriculum by project.
3. Indicator: Assessment of Engaged Learning
Assessment of engaged learning involves presenting students with an authentic task, project, or investigation, and then observing, interviewing, and examining their presentations and artifacts to assess what they actually know and can do. This assessment. often called performance-based assessment, is generative in that it involves students in generating their own performance criteria and playing a key role in the overall design, evaluation, and reporting of their assessment. The best performance-based assessment has a seamless connection to curriculum and instruction so that it is ongoing. Assessment should represent all meaningful aspects of performance and should have equitable standards that apply to all students.
4. Indicator: Instructional Models & Strategies for Engaged Learning
The most powerful models of instruction are interactive. Instruction actively engages the learner, and is generative. Instruction encourages the learner to construct and produce knowledge in meaningful ways. Students teach others interactively and interact generatively with their teacher and peers. This allows for co-construction of knowledge, which promotes engaged learning that is problem-, project-, and goal-based. Some common strategies included in engaged learning models of instruction are individual and group summarizing, means of exploring multiple perspectives, techniques for building upon prior knowledge, brainstorming, Socratic dialogue, problem-solving processes, and team teaching.
5. Indicator: Learning Context of Engaged Learning
For engaged learning to happen, the classroom must be conceived of as a knowledge-building learning community. Such communities not only develop shared understandings collaboratively but also create empathetic learning environments that value diversity and multiple perspectives. These communities search for strategies to build on the strengths of all of its members. Truly collaborative classrooms, schools, and communities encourage students to ask hard questions, define problems, lead conversations, set goals, have work-related conversations with family members and other adults in and out of school, and engage in entrepreneurial activities.
6. Indicator: Grouping for Engaged Learning
Collaborative work that is learning-centered often involves small groups or teams of two or more students within a classroom or across classroom boundaries. Heterogeneous groups (including different sexes, cultures, abilities, ages, and socioeconomic backgrounds) offer a wealth of background knowledge and perspectives to different tasks. Flexible grouping, which allows teachers to reconfigure small groups according to the purposes of instruction and incorporates frequent heterogeneous groups, is one of the most equitable means of grouping and ensuring increased learning opportunities.
7. Indicator: Teacher Roles for Engaged Learning
The role of the teacher in the classroom has shifted from the primary role of information giver to that of facilitator, guide, and learner. As a facilitator, the teacher provides the rich environments and learning experiences needed for collaborative study. The teacher also is required to act as a guide--a role that incorporates mediation, modeling, and coaching. Often the teacher also is a co-learner and co-investigator with the students.
8. Indicator: Student Roles for Engaged Learning
One important student role is that of explorer. Interaction with the physical world and with other people allows students to discover concepts and apply skills. Students are then encouraged to reflect upon their discoveries, which is essential for the student as a cognitive apprentice. Apprenticeship takes place when students observe and apply the thinking processes used by practitioners. Students also become teachers themselves by integrating what they've learned. Hence, they become producers of knowledge, capable of making significant contributions to the world's knowledge.
What Elementary Teachers Need to Know About Language
Over the past decade, education reforms have raised the educational bar
that all children in the United States--including newcomers--must clear
to finish school and participate in the economic and social world of
the 21st century. These reforms place tremendous pressures on children
and teachers: In addition to mastering the content-area curriculum,
children must become skilled users of language. They must be highly
competent in reading and writing to pass the various assessments that
constitute gateways for completing school, getting into college, and
finding jobs. Teachers need a wealth of content and pedagogical
knowledge to ensure that they are providing appropriate instruction to
all students.
Teachers also need a thorough understanding of educational
linguistics--how language figures in education. This foundation would
support teachers' practice overall, and in particular, it would help
them teach literacy skills (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998),
especially to English language learners (August & Hakuta, 1998). If
approached coherently, preparation in educational linguistics would
cover many items on lists of teacher competencies, such as skills in
assessing children, individualizing instruction, and respecting
diversity. This Digest summarizes some basic aspects of oral and
written language about which elementary teachers need expertise in
order to promote literacy. However, it is only one part of the formula
for effective teaching. How literacy skills should be taught and how
teachers can learn what they need to know about language are beyond the
scope of this Digest.......
همونطور که قبلا هم گفتم روشها ی یادگیری زبان تقریبا برای همه زبانها مشترک است با این تفاوت که در مورد انگلیسی کار بسیار راحت تر است؛ ابزار های آموزشی بسیاری در بازار موجود است و دسترسی به افرادی که انگلیسی بلد باشند بیشتر است. پیدا کردن کسی که در حد شما انگلیسی بداند بسیار راحت تر از یافتن کسی است که مثلا فرانسه یا اسپانیایی صحبت کند.
در حال حاضر ابزار های مختلفی در بازار وجود دارد که می توانید با توجه به مدل خودتان و متدی که برای یادگیری انتخاب کردید از آنها استفاده کنید. شامل :
· کتابهای آموزشی از موسسات و دانشگاههای مختلف انگلیسی، امریکایی، استرالیایی و کانادایی
· فلش کارت؛ برای کسانی که حافظه تصویری آ نها قوی تر است و نیاز به تکرار مداوم تسوط نرم افزار لایتنر دارند.
· کتاب اصطلاحات؛ شامل الفاظ و اصطلاحات غیر رسمی و روزمره، می تونه سرگرم کننده باشه و از یکنواختی کار کم کند.
· دیکشنری؛ در سطوح مختلف و به زبانهای مختلف
· دیکشنری تصویری (picture dictionary) که برای شروع بسیار خوب است و دایره لغات را گسترش می دهد، به خصوص برای کسانی که حافظه تصویری خوبی دارند
· کاست یا سی دی آموزشی ؛ برای افرادی که حافطه شنیداری آنها قوی تر است
· مجلات و روزنامه ها؛ در زمینه های مختلف و با توجه به رشته ای که به آن علاقه مندید، مثل معماری و هنر، روانشناسی ، کامپیوتر و سینما در دسترس هستند.
· مقالات اینترنتی؛ می تونید با توجه به علاقه تون عضو سایتها شوید تا براتون روزانه مقالاتی ارسال شود. یک مقاله کوتاه در روز بسیار تاثیر گذار است.
· کتاب؛ بسیار زیاد و در همه زمینه ها موجود است، رمانهای معروف دنیا، فیلمنامه های بزرگ و بیوگرافی افراد معروف فقط به level آن دقت کنید که از سطح پایین شروع کنید.
· اخبار؛ تقریبا هرروز اخبار انگلیسی پخش می شود؛ برای بالا بردن توانایی listening بسیار مفید است.
· برنامه های تلویزیونی؛ مثل مسابقات، حیات وحش و طبیعت، برنامه های تحقیقاتی، و اگر دسترسی دارید سریالهای انگلیسی زبان بسیار گزینه خوبی هستند.
· فیلم؛ به خصوص الان که اکثر فیلمها زیر نویس دارند.
· موسیقی؛ رایج ترین و در دسترس ترین گزینه.
این ابزار و تمرین زیاد مهمترین کلید موفقیت شما هستند، اما روشهایی هم برای تتکرار و تمرین هستند که بیشتر متخصصین توصیه می کنند. این ها روشهای ساده ای برای بالا بردن اعتماد به نفس و ماندگاری مطالبی است که آموخته اید و نکته مهم این است که وقت زیادی نمی گیرد :
۱. حفظ کردن. مطلب را حفظ کنید و بعد سعی کنید آن را از حفظ بازگو کنید. فقط دقت کنید هرجا که یادتان رفت خودتان سعی کنید مفهومی که گرفته اید را بازگو کنید.
۲. با خودتان صحبت کنید. آنچه که روزمره انجام می دهید برای خود بازگو کنید، یا یک اتفاق را برای خود تعریف کنید. با این کار کم کم اعتماد به نفستان بالا می رود.
۳. با دوستتان صحبت کنید. بسیار خوب است که کسی را داشته باشید هم سطح خودتان و دو نفره تمرین کنید.
۴. بعد از مدتی این جمع ۲ نفره را به چند نفره تبدیل کنید. مثلا جلسات نیم ساعته هفتگی بگذارید و در مورد موضوعی با هم بحث کنید.
۵. سعی کنید با افراد غریبه هم صحبت شوید. این که فکر کنید این فرد شما را نمی شناسد، احساس بهتری به شما می دهد و از اشتباه کردن و مسخره شدن نمی ترسید.
۶. دوست اینترنتی داشته باشید. قبلا دوستی و ارتباطبا نامه بسیار رایج بود، به نام pen pal، که از طریق موسسات بین المللی انجام می شد، اما امروز اینترنت کار را راحت تر کرده و email و chat بسیار محبوب است.
۷. آینه. بسیار روش خوبی است. روبه روی آینه بنشینید و صحبت کنید. حرکات بدن و لهجه و body language خود را می بینید و یاد می گیرید چه طور با کمک گرفتن از بدنتان منظورتان را برسانید و در عین حال مسلط و با آرامش صحبت کنید.
۸. تدریس کنید. آنچه را که یاد می گیرید به کسی یاد بدهید. هم برای خودتان تکرار می شود و هم باید آن را به خوبی بفهمید تا بتوانید بیاموزید.
۹. موضوعاتی که دوست دارید برای شروع انتخاب کنید؛ موضوعاتی که برای همه جالب است، مثل عشق، رنگها، لباسها، نسبتهای فامیلی، و از همه اینها بهتر:خوردنی ها!
۱۰. بنویسید. هر شب چند خط برای خود بنویسید و اگر لغتی لازم است که نمی دانید، چک کنید.
این نکات همه ساده و تاثیرگذارند، ولی باز هم تاکید می کنم تمرین زبان باید هر روز باشد، هرچند بسیار کوتاه.
ادغام آموزش زبان با محتوا بحث داغ این روزای آموزش زبان انگلیسی
Integrating Language and Content: Lessons from Immersion
National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning
This Digest is based on a report published by the National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning, Integrating Language and Content: Lessons from Immersion, by Fred Genesee. Copies of the report are available for $4.00 from Center for Applied Linguistics, NCRDSLL, 4646 40th Street NW, Washington, DC 20016-1859.
One of the most interesting innovations to emerge in second language education during the last three decades is the language immersion program. In this method of language instruction, the regular school curriculum is taught through the medium of a second language. The first immersion programs were developed in Canada to provide English-speaking students with the opportunity to learn French, Canada's other official language. Since that time, immersion programs have been adopted in many parts of North America, and alternative forms of immersion have been devised. In the United States, immersion programs can be found in a number of languages, including French, German, Spanish, Japanese, and Chinese.
With the purpose of highlighting the lessons to be learned from immersion, this Digest presents selected findings from research carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of immersion programs in Canada and the United States. These lessons are related to the importance of (1) integrating language with content instruction, (2) creating classroom environments that are discourse-rich, and (3) systematically planning language instruction along with content instruction. Language Integration Over Isolation
The first lesson to be learned from immersion is that when second language instruction is integrated with instruction in academic content, it is more effective than teaching the language in isolation. Proficiency in the target language is not a prerequisite to academic development; rather, language learning results from using language to perform authentic communicative functions.
During the last 10 years, there has been a shift away from teaching language in isolation to integrating language and content instruction. There are at least four reasons for this shift. First, language is acquired most effectively when it is learned for communication in meaningful and significant social situations. The academic content of the school curriculum can provide a meaningful basis for second language learning, given that the content is of interest or value to the learners.
Second, the integration of language and content instruction provides a substantive basis for language learning. Important and interesting content, academic or otherwise, gives students a meaningful basis for understanding and acquiring new language structures and patterns. In addition, authentic classroom communication provides a purposeful and motivating context for learning the communicative functions of the new language. In the absence of content and authentic communication, language can be learned only as an abstraction devoid of conceptual or communicative substance.
A third reason for the shift toward language and content integration is the relationship between language and other aspects of human development. Language, cognition, and social awareness develop concurrently in young children. Integrated second language instruction seeks to keep these components of development together so that second language learning is an integral part of social and cognitive development in school settings.
Finally, knowing how to use language in one social context or academic domain does not necessarily mean knowing how to use it in others. The integration of second language instruction with subject content respects the specificity of language use. For example, evidence indicates that the way language is used in particular academic domains, such as mathematics (Spanos, Rhodes, Dale, & Crandall, 1988), is not the same in other academic domains, such as social studies (Short, 1994).
A variety of integrated approaches to second language teaching have been developed. Immersion is a specific type of integrated instruction. The primary focus of immersion is not language learning but academic instruction. Immersion programs have proved to be successful; the academic achievement of immersion students is comparable to that of students educated through their native language. This indicates that the students in immersion programs acquire the second language skills they need to master the academic skills and information appropriate for their grade level. Opportunities to Use the Target Language
The second lesson to emerge from research on immersion is that approaches that provide opportunities for extended student discourse, especially discourse associated with activities selected by individual students, can be particularly beneficial for second language learning.
Research on French immersion programs in Canada has shown that immersion students often perform as well as native French-speaking students on tests of French reading and listening comprehension. However, they seldom achieve the same high levels of competence in speaking and writing. Although functionally effective, the oral and written skills of immersion students indicate a number of shortcomings. Immersion students' grammar is less complex and less redundant than that of native speakers and is influenced by English grammar. The available studies suggest that this results, in part, from learning environments in which there is a lack of opportunity to engage in extended discourse.
The solution to the shortcomings in immersion students' productive skills seems to lie in the use of methodologies that apply techniques to practice language forms with a communicative approach. "Such tasks and activities will meet the same criteria as is demanded of the communicative teaching of grammar: purposefulness, interactivity, creativity, and unpredictability" (Clipperton, 1994, p. 746).
Activity-centered immersion programs, particularly those that focus on individual choice of learning activity, achieve high levels of second language proficiency even in the productive skills. Stevens (1976) compared students who worked on self-selected activities in collaboration or consultation with other students and who were expected to make oral and written reports in the target language on their work with students who all worked on the same teacher-directed activities at the same time and in the same way. Although students in the activity-centered program used the target language for only 40% of the school day, they attained the same levels of target language speaking and reading proficiency and almost the same levels of reading and writing proficiency as the students in the teacher-centered program, which provided all instruction in the target language. The success of the activity-centered classes can be attributed to two main factors: 1) students had regular opportunities for extended discourse; and 2) students were highly motivated because they used the target language in situations of personal choice.
In sum, the use of instructional strategies and academic tasks that encourage increased interaction among learners and between learners and teachers is likely to be beneficial for second language learning. Effective Curriculum Design
The third lesson to be learned from immersion is that the integration of language and academic objectives should be carefully planned, providing for the presentation, practice, and application of specific language forms that are necessary for discussing different academic content. If integrated instruction is not planned systematically, teachers may use strategies that are not optimal for promoting full second language development. Swain (1988) examined how immersion teachers used French to teach a variety of academic subjects. The study found that teachers used a functionally restricted set of language patterns, corrected content more often than linguistic form, and were inconsistent in their corrections of linguistic form. These results suggest that in an effort to make academic material as comprehensible as possible, immersion teachers might be adopting communication strategies that rely on linguistic skills their students already have, and students may not be challenged to learn new language skills. In order to develop the students' language skills fully, immersion teachers must progressively model more complex language and use instructional activities that demand more complex language skills from students.
Instructional strategies and tasks must be carefully selected so that students use and learn targeted aspects of the language. Without such systematic plans, teachers may provide inconsistent or even random information about language forms. A systematic focus on the structural aspects of the language greatly enhances learning of targeted grammatical features.
Increased attention to language forms does not mean less focus on communication and meaning. Salomone (1992) reports on an immersion program in the United States that "exemplifies the current trend of all second language instruction: using the second language rather than knowing about the language, with bilingualism as the ultimate instructional goal" (p. 9). However, having verified a lack of accuracy and a continued "fossilization" in the students' speech, teachers in the program studied by Salomone incorporated systematic planning and explicit teaching of the grammar and vocabulary component of the syllabus. This strategy greatly improved the results. Other studies describe the specifics of direct language instruction in an immersion context (e.g., Clipperton, 1994; Laplante, 1993) or show the benefits of identifying the semantic and syntactic features and language functions and tasks that are part of the academic language for a content area and incorporating them in the design of lesson plans (Short, 1994). Conclusion
Experiences in immersion classes illuminate the practice of second language teaching and indicate effective ways of attaining high levels of academic content mastery and target language proficiency. Evaluations of a variety of immersion programs suggest at least three elements of general relevance for second language instruction: 1) instructional approaches that integrate content and language are likely to be more effective than approaches in which language is taught in isolation; 2) an activity-centered approach that creates opportunities for extended student discourse is likely to be beneficial for second language learning; and 3) language objectives should be systematically targeted along with academic objectives in order to maximize language learning. References
Clipperton, R. (1994). Explicit vocabulary instruction in French immersion. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50, 736-49.
Laplante, B. (1993). Strategies pedagogiques et enseignement des sciences en immersion francaise: Le cas d'une enseignante. Canadian Modern Language Review, 49, 567-88.
Salomone, A. M. (1992). Student-teacher interactions in selected French immersion classrooms. In E. B. Bernhardt, (Ed.), Life in language immersion classrooms (pp. 97-109). Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters.
Short, D. (1994). Integrating language and culture in middle school American history classes (Educational Practice Rep. No. 8). Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Spanos, G., Rhodes, N., Dale, T., & Crandall, J. (1988). Linguistic features of mathematical problem-solving: Insights and applications. In J.P. Mestre and R.R. Cocking (Eds.) Linguistic and cultural influences on learning mathematics (pp. 221-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Stevens, F. (1976). Second language learning in an activity-centered program. Unpublished master's thesis, Concordia University.
Swain, M. (1988). Manipulating and complementing content teaching to maximize second language learning. TESL Canada Journal, 6, 68-83.
یک Lesson Plan (طرح درس ) برای تدریس زمان گذشته استمراری
Past Continuous Lesson Plan
FORM
[was/were + present participle]
Examples:
* You were studying when she called.
* Were you studying when she called?
* You were not studying when she called.
Complete List of Past Continuous Forms
USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past
was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the
Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an
interruption in time.
Examples:
* I was watching TV when she called.
* When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
* While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
* What were you doing when the earthquake started?
* I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.
* You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven off.
* While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
* Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
* While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went off.
* A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?
B: I was snowboarding.
زبان آموزشی در دوران کودکی نتیجه طبیعی تماس با زبان است؛ به طوری که کودکان بدون در نظر گرفتن سطح هوش و دریافت هیچگونه آموزشی، زبان یا به بیان دقیقتر صورت شفاهی زبان را میآموزند.
زبان آموزشی در دوران کودکی نتیجه طبیعی تماس با زبان است؛ به طوری که کودکان بدون در نظر گرفتن سطح هوش و دریافت هیچگونه آموزشی، زبان یا به بیان دقیقتر صورت شفاهی زبان را میآموزند. افزون بر این اگر کودکی به طور طبیعی در تماس با دو یا چند زبان قرار بگیرد، میتواند این زبانها را مانند گویشوران بومی بیاموزد و روان و سلیس صحبت کند. اما در اکثریت قریب به اتفاق بزرگسالان، این توانایی با افزایش سن شدیدا کاهش مییابد. به بیان دیگر زبان آموزشی در بزرگسالان نتیجه طبیعی تماس با زبان نیست بلکه امری است اکتسابی که نقش عوامل غیرزبانی همچون حافظه و رشد شناختی در آن بسیار بیشتر از کودکان است. آنچه در کودکی به صورت طبیعی و بدون دردسر آموخته میشود، در بزرگسالی تنها به کمک انگیزه قوی و تلاش آگاهانه میسر خواهد بود. یکی از علاقهمندان به مسئله آموزش زبان، اریک لینبرگ آمریکایی، متخصص روانشناسی زبان بود که به بررسی مطالعات زیستشناختی در رابطه با رفتار مخصوص گونهها پرداخت. در این مطالعات تصریح شده بود که برای رشد طبیعی نوزاد حیوانات، حضور محرکی در زمانهای بهخصوصی از زندگی نوزادها ضروری است. لینبرگ از این مطالعات به این نتیجه رسید که برای زبانآموزی نیز دوره به خصوصی در زندگی ا فراد وجود دارد و به این ترتیب فرضیه دوره بحرانی را مطرح ساخت. براساس این فرضیه سرعت و سهولت فراگیری زبان در کودکی بسیار بیشتر از بزرگسالی است و با رسیدن به دوره بلوغ فراگیری زبان بسیار مشکلتر خواهد شد. با توجه به این فرضیه میتوان سازوکار افت فراگیری زبان در افراد بالغ را توضیح داد. فرضیه لینبرگ بر این پایه استوار بود که تغییراتی که در توانایی زبانآموزی افراد دیده میشود با مراحل رشد مغز در ارتباط است. مطالعات نشان دادهاند که در حدود ۲ سالگی، مهارتهای زبانی که در نیمکره چپ مغز و در ۲ منطقه بروکا یا مرکز تولید زبان و ورئیکه یا مرکز درک زبان جای داشتهاند، در صورت تماس با زبان بهخصوصی، در جهت آن زبان تثبیت میشوند. به این فرایند یکسوشدگی مغز میگویند که در نتیجه آن تمام فعالیتهای قشر مخ بین ۲ نیمکره چپ و راست تقسیم میشوند. به نظر میرسد که فرایند یکسوشدگی در سن بلوغ (۱۲ تا ۱۴سالگی) به پایان میرسد و فراگیری کامل زبان از آن پس به امری تقریبا غیرممکن تبدیل میشود. مثلا دوره حساس آموزش آواهای زبان در حدود ۵ تا ۶ سالگی است ولی برای
یادگیری دستور یا واژگان این سن بالاتر میرود. از دیگر دلایلی که برای
آموزش آواها در سنین پایینتر میتواند ذکر کرد، آمادگی و انعطاف
اندامهای گفتار در تولید آواهای گوناگون در کودکی است اما در دوران بلوغ
اندامهای گفتار دیگر کاملا شکل گرفتهاند و تولید آواهایی که تا پیش از
آن زمان شنیده نشدهاند، اگر نگوییم غیرممکن، دستکم بسیار مشکل خواهد
بود. لینبرگ فرضیه خود را براساس مطالعه بیمارانی که بر اثر ضایعه مغزی به زبانپریشی مبتلا شده بودند، بنا نهاده بود. وی متوجه شد که بزرگسالانی که دچار زبان پریشی خفیف هستند، ممکن است بهبود کامل پیدا کنند اما اگر ضایعه مغزی شدید باشد، بخشی از توانایی زبانی فرد یا تمام آن از بین میرود. این در حالی است که در کودکان حتی اگر تمام نیمکره چپ، که مراکز زبان در آن واقعاند برداشته شود، مراکز زبانی به نیم کره راست مغز منتقل میشوند. با گذشت زمان و پیشرفت علم، ایرادات زیادی به فرضیه دوره بحرانی وارد شد اما با وجود همه ایرادات، کسی تاکنون نتوانسته این فرضیه را به طور قطع رد کند یا کنار بگذارد. متخصصان آموزش زبان همچنان معتقدند که عامل سن یکی از عوامل موثر در فراگیری زبان محسوب میشود. امروز بیشتر از دوره حساس زبانآموزی (و نه دوره بحرانی) نام برده میشود. این دوره به زمانی اطلاق میشود که کودک میتواند به آسانی،با سرعت و به طور کامل و حتی بدون آموزش زبان بیاموزد. به نظر میرسد که برای آموزش مهارتهای مختلف زبانی دورههای حساس متفاوتی وجود دارد.
در حقیقت در دوره نوجوانی دوران رشد فراگیری زبان دیگر سپری شده است. زبانآموزی که پس از بلوغ به آموختن زبان دوم روی میآورد، همواره با تداخل زبانی یا آمیختن ۲ زبان با همدیگر مواجه خواهد بود چرا که۲ زبان در شرایط نابرابر یادگیری قرار میگیرند. این تداخل زبانی بیشتر اوقات از جهت زبان اول به سمت زبان دوم خواهد بود و مشکلات زبانآموز ابتدا درتواناییهای روساختی یعنی آوایی، واژگانی، دستوری،سبکی و در موقعیتهای پیشرفتهتر در زمینه تواناییهای ژرفساختی یعنی شمزبانی و اندیشیدن زبانی در زبان دوم متجلی خواهد شد. حال اگر تنها از منظر این فرضیه به وضعیت آموزش زبان خارجی در نظام رسمی آموزشوپرورش کشور نظر کنیم، متوجه میشویم که عامل سن در آموزش زبان در ایران نادیده گرفته شده است. درس زبان خارجی در دوره راهنمایی یعنی در آستانه بلوغ به برنامه درسی دانشآموزان معرفی میشود که با توجه به مطالب گفته شده، سنی بالاست به طوری که تواناییهای فراگیری زبان در این زمان رو به کاهش میرود. اگر بپذیریم که زبان انگلیسی دیگر زبان خارجی نیست بلکه زبان میانجی یا زبان مشترک تمام جهانیان است، باید حق آموزش درست را هم برای تمام کودکان ایرانی قائل شویم. سالهاست که در کشور انواع مدارس خصوصی، ملی، غیرانتفاعی و اخیرا غیردولتی آموزش زبان انگلیسی را از دوره ابتدایی در برنامه درسی خود قرار دادهاند. بدون در نظر گرفتن کیفیت آموزش زبان در این مدارس، که خود موضوع بحث جداگانهای است، آیا وقت آن نرسیده است که تمام کودکان ایرانی در شهرها و روستاها از آموزش برابر درس زبان انگلیسی در دوره ابتدایی برخودار شوند؟ با در نظر داشتن تمام مشکلات و موانع اجرایی که این کار خواهد داشت، متولیان آموزشوپرورش کشور با گنجاندن درس انگلیسی در برنامه رسمی دوره ابتدایی ثابت میکنند که هیچ کودکی ایرانی باهوشتر یا لایقتر یا برتر در فراگیری زبان نیست. دانستن درست و کامل زبان انگلیسی نیرومندترین ابزاری است که میتوان به یاری آن به گنجینه ارزشمند علم و ادب و هنر جهانی دست یافت. در را به روی کودکان ایرانی نبندیم.
هرگاه صحبت از ديکشنري ميشود، معمولاً شما به ياد يک ديکشنري دوزبانه ميافتيد. مثلاً ديکشنري انگليسي- فارسي يا انگليسي- آلماني. ولی يک نوع ديکشنري ديگر هم وجود دارد: يک ديکشنري انگليسي- انگليسي (تکزبانه). چنين ديکشنرياي تنها به زبان انگليسي نوشته شده است. لغات انگليسي ترجمه نشدهاند، بلکه به زبان انگليسي "تعريف" شدهاند. به دلايل زير، ديکشنريهاي انگليسي- انگليسي از ديکشنريهاي دوزبانه بهتر است: تعاريف انگليسي، همان عبارات واقعي انگليسي با گرامر و لغات هستند. اگر شما آنها را بطور منظم بخوانيد، به طور خودکار گرامر و لغات را بخاطر میسپاريد. تعاريف انگليسي موجب يادگيري بيشتر شما میشود. شما اغلب به دنبال لغتي خواهيد گشت که بخشي از تعريف لغتي ديگر بوده است. براي مثال، اگر کلمه naughty را در ديکشنري بيابيد، ممکن است با عبارتي اينچنين روبرو شويد: ".If you say that a child is naughty, you think that he or she is behaving badly or is disobedient" اگر شما معاني لغات disobedient و behave را ندانيد، به دنبال آنها نيز خواهيد رفت، يعني بجاي يک کلمه، شما سه کلمه میآموزيد!
از استفاده از يک ديکشنري انگليسي- انگليسي باکي نداشته باشيد. اگر شما بتوانيد متون ساده زبان را بخوانيد، قطعاً تعاريف موجود در يک ديکشنري انگليسي- انگليسي را نيز خواهيد فهميد.
ديکشنریهايي براي زبانآموزان و براي افراد بومی
دو نوع ديکشنري انگليسي- انگليسي وجود دارد: ديکشنریهايي براي زبانآموزان و ديکشنریهايي براي کساني که انگليسي، زبان مادري آنهاست. ديکشنریهاي نوع دوم، توسط خود آمريکايیها، بريتانيايیها، و ... براي يافتن معاني لغات بسيار مشکل نظير tintinnabulation مورد استفاده قرار میگيرد. ديکشنریهاي زبانآموزان مورد استفاده اشخاصي است که در حال فراگيري زبان انگليسي بعنوان زبان دوم میباشند. ديکشنریهاي بوميان، معمولاً نسبت به ديکشنریهاي زبانآموزان حاوي لغات بيشتري است، ولي تعاريف آن پيچيده است و جملات نمونه و مثالهاي کمتري دارد. از اين رو، اولين ديکشنري شما بايد يک ديکشنري مخصوص زبان آموزان باشد. بعداً، شما به ديکشنریهاي ديگري نيز احتياج پيدا خواهيد کرد؛ مثلاً يک ديکشنري افعالي چندتايي و يک ديکشنري بزرگ براي افراد بومي.
ديکشنري هاي نرمافزاری
اگر امکان دارد، يک ديکشنري نرمافزاري را بجاي نسخه چاپ شده آن، تهيه نماييد. در زير به دلايل اين کار اشاره میشود: جستجوي ساده. ديکشنريهاي نرمافزاري شما را قادر میسازند تا عمل جستجوي لغات را بسيار سريع انجام دهيد. تايپ کردن يک کلمه با صفحه کليد، بسيار بسيار سريعتر از گشتن در ميان صفحات يک کتاب بزرگ سنگين است. کپي آسان. شما میتوانيد مجموعهاي از تعاريف را در يک جا جمع کنيد و از آنها استفاده نماييد. فايلهاي صوتي. در بسياري از ديکشنریهاي نرمافزاري شما میتوانيد به اصواتي گوش دهيد که طرز تلفظ يک کلمه را به شما نشان میدهد. اين اصوات نمیتواند جاي نوشتارهاي فونتيک را بگيرد (به ادامه مطلب توجه فرماييد)، ولي قطعاً اين يک ويژگي ممتاز و مفيد است. اطلاعات بيشتر، طرح واضحتر. ديکشنریهاي چاپي فضاي محدودي دارند، و به همين دليل است که با يک فوت ريز چاپ میشوند و طرح آنها بسيار شلوغ است. يک ديکشنري رايانهاي فضاي بيشتري دارد، لذا میتواند اطلاعات بيشتري در اختيار بگذارد (براي مثال، جملات نمونه بيشتر) يا همان اطلاعات را بطريقي روشنتر ارائه نمايد (فونت بزرگتر، فضاهاي خلوت، ...).
چرا جستجوي سريع تا اين حد مهم است؟ زيرا اگر مايليد تا زبان انگليسي را بخوبي فرابگيريد، بايد بدنبال لغات زيادي بگرديد، و يک ديکشنري چاپي شما را بتدريج از اين کار دلسرد مي کند. شما میخواهيد معني لغتي را بيابيد، به کتابي عظيم الجثه با 1500 صفحه نگاهي میاندازيد و با خود میگوييد: "اه... بي خيال!"، و شما هرگز آن لغت را ياد نمیگيريد. يکبار که سهولت کار با يک ديکشنري نرمافزاري را ديديد، هر هفته به هزاران لغت مراجعه خواهيد کرد و زبان انگليسي شما رشد چشمگيري خواهد داشت.
زبان توسعه یافته ترین ابزار فکری است که برای برقراری ارتباط بین انسانها و جوامع انسانی به کار گرفته می شود. گرچه با ابزارهای دیگری مانند علایم، رقص و هنرهای بصری همچون نقاشی و مجسمه سازی نیز می توان ارتباط برقرار نمود، اما انتقال مفاهیم پیچیده ذهنی به ساده ترین و کامل ترین شکل ممکن فقط از طریق زبان نوشتاری و گفتاری ممکن است. اما جمعیت کره زمین به زبانهای مختلفی صحبت می کنند، زبانهایی که هرکدام به گوش دیگری غریب می آیند. طی سالیان اخیر به دلایل مختلف علمی، سیاسی، اقتصادی و فرهنگی، زبان انگلیسی تبدیل به وسیله ارتباط مردمانی از فرهنگها و ملیت های متفاوت شده است. امروزه زبان انگلیسی درفعالیتهای مالی، تجاری، آموزشی، پژوهشی وعلمی سراسر جهان به عنوان ابزار اصلی انتقال مفاهیم به کارگرفته می شود، البته زبانهای دیگر نیز در برخی موارد نقشی کلیدی ایفا می کنند. در دنیای امروز، اگر بخواهید در رشته پزشکی تحصیل کنید یا مدیری موفق باشید، دانستن زبان انگلیسی برایتان یک ضرورت به شمار می آید چرا که در آن صورت می توانید درتجربیاتی که دیگرمردم دنیا بدست آورده اند سهیم شوید و در ارتباطی تنگاتنگ با آنان، دانش خود را به روز نگه دارید. علاوه بر آن، دردنیایی که پیشرفت وسایل ارتباط جمعی رفته رفته آن را به دهکده ای فرضی بدل می کند ،نیاز به زبانی مشترک برای برقراری ارتباط و پیشبرد اهداف علمی-اجتماعی بشر، بیش از پیش احساس می شود. بنابراین یادگیری زبان انگلیسی که خواهی نخواهی به زبان ارتباط مردم دنیا بدل شده است دراولویت کاری تاجران، دانش پژوهان و ... قرارمی گیرد. البته منظور از یادگیری، کسب تواناییهای لازم به اندازه سخن پردازانی مانند شکسپیرومیلتن نیست بلکه تا حدی است که بتوان دریافت کدام واژه چه مفهومی میتواند داشته باشد. در حال حاضر انگلیسی، زبان مادری بیش از ۳۴۰ میلیون شهروند بریتانیایی، آمریکایی، کانادایی و استرالیایی است. علاوه برآن، به دلیل نفوذ نظامی، اقتصادی، علمی، سیاسی و فرهنگی دولت انگلیس در سده های هجدهم و نوزدهم میلادی وهمچنین نفوذ فرهنگی و رسانه ای آمریکا درسده بیستم و بیست و یکم، تعداد ۶۰۰ میلیون نفر نیز زبان انگلیسی را به عنوان زبان دوم خود به کار می برند. میلیونها نفر دیگر در سراسر جهان در حال یاد گیری این زبان می باشند تا بخشی از نیازهای علمی-فرهنگی خود را در جوامع انسانی به شدت در هم تنیده امروزی رفع نمایند.
یک Lesson Plan (طرح درس ) برای تدریس زمان گذشته ساده
Simple Past
FORM
[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs
Examples:
* You called Debbie. * Did you call Debbie? * You did not call Debbie.
Complete List of Simple Past Forms USE 1 Completed Action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.
Examples:
* I saw a movie yesterday. * I didn't see a play yesterday. * Last year, I traveled to Japan. * Last year, I didn't travel to Korea. * Did you have dinner last night? * She washed her car. * He didn't wash his car.
USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions
We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.
Examples:
* I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim. * He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00. * Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?
USE 3 Duration in Past
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.
Examples:
* I lived in Brazil for two years. * Shauna studied Japanese for five years. * They sat at the beach all day. * They did not stay at the party the entire time. * We talked on the phone for thirty minutes. * A: How long did you wait for them? B: We waited for one hour.
USE 4 Habits in the Past
The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.
Examples:
* I studied French when I was a child. * He played the violin. * He didn't play the piano. * Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid? * She worked at the movie theater after school. * They never went to school, they always skipped class.
USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations
The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."
Examples:
* She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing. * He didn't like tomatoes before. * Did you live in Texas when you were a kid? * People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.
IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.
Examples:
* When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question. * She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.
When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.
Example:
* I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.
Examples:
* You just called Debbie. * Did you just call Debbie?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
* Tom repaired the car. Active * The car was repaired by Tom. Passive
● چند سؤال! ▪ یادگیری در ما چگونه صورت میگیرد؟ ▪ یادگیری چه مراحلی دارد؟ ▪ چگونه میتوانیم نسبت به یادگیری خود اشراف داشته باشیم؟ ▪ موفقیت تحصیلی، چه ارتباطی با مهارتهای فراشناختی میتواند داشته باشد؟ ● شناخت و فراشناخت؟!
روش و مهارتهای یادگیری به راهبردهای شناختی و فراشناختی تقسیم میشود.
یادگیرنده ماهر، کسی است که هم به روشهای شناختی مجهز است و هم به روشهای فراشناختی.
شناخت و فراشناخت، دو مفهوم مکمل یکدیگرند. شناخت به فرایندهایی اشاره میکند که ما به کمک آنها یاد
میگیریم، فکر میکنیم و به یاد میآوریم. اما فراشناخت به دانش ما درباره فرایندهای شناختی خودمان و
چگونه استفاده بهینه از آنها برای رسیدن به هدفهای یادگیری گفته میشود. به دیگر سخن، فراشناخت به
دانش یا آگاهی از نظام شناختی خود و یا به دانستن درباره دانستن گفته میشود.
جنبه های مطلوب وهنجار رفتار های معلم زبان می تواند تسهیل کننده و
پیشرفت دهنده آموزش زبان خارجی باشد و در مقابل آن جنبه های ناهنجار و
نامطلوب اخلاق و رفتار معلم موجب ایجاد عوامل باز دارنده در امر یادگیری
زبان خارجی می شود. هر اندازه "بازخور" رفتارهای آموزشی و اعمال تعلمیاتی
معلم زبان مناسب تر، خوش آیند تر ومطلوب تر باشد، میزان یادگیری و پیشرفت
دانش آموزان بیش تر خواهد شد.
جنبه های مطلوب وهنجار رفتار های معلم زبان می تواند تسهیل کننده و
پیشرفت دهنده آموزش زبان خارجی باشد و در مقابل آن جنبه های ناهنجار و
نامطلوب اخلاق و رفتار معلم موجب ایجاد عوامل باز
دارنده در امر یادگیری زبان خارجی می شود. هر اندازه "بازخور" رفتارهای
آموزشی و اعمال تعلمیاتی معلم زبان مناسب تر، خوش آیند تر ومطلوب تر باشد،
میزان یادگیری و پیشرفت دانش آموزان بیش تر خواهد شد. در مطالعات بعمل
آمده سعی شده است که نگرش و نظرات دانش آموزان سنجیده شود و حاصل این
یافته ها، نکات مثبت یا ویژگی های خوبی است که یک معلم زبان باید داشته
باشد.
معلم زبان بایستی از اخلاق حسسنه و حسن رفتار با دانش آموزان بر خور دار
باشد. این حسن خلق از طروق زیر می تواند تحقق یابد. با دانش آموزان ایجاد
رابطه صمیمانه نموده و با حوصله زیاد، مهربانی، دلسوزی، تواضع و شکیبایی
با مسائل برخورد کند. از مسائل دانش آموزان با خبر بوده و در حل آنها تا
حد ممکن کوشا باشد. دارای اخلاق و رفتار نمونه بوده، به طوری که بتواند
الگوی مناسبی برای شکل گیری شخصیت دانش آموزان باشد و تاثیرات مثبت بر
آنها بگذارد.........
ادامه مطلب
یک Lesson Plan (طرح درس) برای تدریس زمان گذشته ساده
Simple Past
FORM [VERB+ed] or irregular verbs
Examples:
You called Debbie. Did you call Debbie? You did not call Debbie.
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.
Some useful techniques to use when teaching listening. Why not add a tip of your own!
Pre-listening
* Tell your students they shouldn’t worry that they have to understand every word they hear. Not every word is important! * Where possible, make sure students know what they are listening for before you start listening. Explain they should focus only on the information they need. * Give two or three general questions to check students comprehension of the basic details. * If possible, check for any words that your students may not know. Pre-teach these so they do not interfere with understanding. * Brainstorm students’ ideas on the topic they are going to listen to. This will help focus them. * Don’t choose a listening that is too long. If necessary, stop the recording at certain points and review what students have understood so far.
While listening
* As a general principle, try to play the recording once for overall comprehension. Then play the recording again for specific details. * Tell students to note any dates, people or places they hear. * Divide students into groups and give each group a different listening task (e.g. different questions). Then swap their answers and have students listen again and check their classmates’ answers. * Don’t be afraid to repeat the recording… especially the parts students have most trouble understanding.
Post-listening
* Tell students to compare their notes and discuss what they understood in pairs or small groups. * Encourage students to respond to what they heard. For example, where possible ask questions like Do you agree? and encourage debate. * Tell pairs to write a summary of the main points. Then have them compare their summaries and check if they covered all the main points. * Play the recording again and tell students to call out ‘Stop!’ when they hear the answers they were listening for. * Put students into groups and tell them to make a list of comprehension questions to ask each other. * Tell students to make a list in their notebooks of any new vocabulary they feel is useful.
Remember, it’s important to give students a lot of variety in what they listen to. Try to use as many different sources of listening material as you can: advertisements, news programs, poetry, songs, extracts from plays, speeches, lectures, telephone conversations, informal dialogues… the more varied and authentic the listening practice you offer them, the more fun you’ll all have!
افزایش دامنه لغت یکی از موضوعات مورد علاقه زبان آموزان هست.
در اینجا چند نکته برای افزایش دامنه لغت آوردم......
Building a Better Vocabulary
Everyone—from beginning learners in English to veterans in journalism—knows the frustration of not having the right word immediately available in that lexicon one carries between one's ears. Sometimes it's a matter of not being able to recall the right word; sometimes we never knew it. It is also frustrating to read a newspaper or homework assignment and run across words whose meanings elude us. Language, after all, is power. When your children get in trouble fighting with the neighbors' children, and your neighbors call your children little twerps and you call their children nefarious miscreants—well, the battle is over and they didn't stand a chance. Building a vocabulary that is adequate to the needs of one's reading and self-expression has to be a personal goal for every writer and speaker.........
توجه به نقش انگیزش در فرآیند تدریس و تقویت آن می تواند در یادگیری
زبان کمک موثری باشد. آگاهی معلم از انگیزش زبان آموز و رابطه آن با فرآیند تدریس،
چارچوبی را فراهم می آورد که توسط آن معلم زبان می تواند روشهای تدریس موثری را
برگزیند. انگیزش به بیان ساده، یک نیاز جسمانی یا نیاز روانی و اجتماعی است که شخص
را برای نیل به هدف به حرکت وا می دارد تا در پرتو آن نیاز خود را برآورده ساخته و
در اثر دستیابی به هدف در خود احساس رضایت نماید.
میزان و نوع انگیزش در کیفیت و کمیت فرآیند یادگیری نقش
تعیین کننده ای دارد و معلم زبان در دادن انگیزش زبان آموز دریادگیری زبان نقش
عمده ای را ایفا میکند. بطور کلی دو نوع انگیزش در زبان آموزان مشاهده می شود. یکی
انگیزش بالا که در یادگیری زبان اثر مثبت و دیگری انگیزش کم که باعث رکود و ضعف یادگیری
زبان انگلیسی می شود. انواع انگیزش دیگر را تحت عناوین انگیزش درونی، برونی و کامیابی
می توان مطرح کرد. انگیزش درونی به لذت روحی در کسب تحسین دیگران اطلاق می شود. انگیزش
برونی حرکتی است که با عوامل خارجی فعال می گردد نظیر کسب نمره، دریافت جایزه . انگیزش
کامیابی که عالیترین نوع انگیزش است به حداکثر تلاش فرد که برای دستیابی به هدف
مشخصی بکار بسته است اشاره دارد.
In the previous section, we have discussed memory processes and introduced you to some basic concepts of memory. What we have presented, however, is just the tip of the iceberg. If you review research on memory and learning, you will find that there exist a vast amount of information on the subject. But in learning to become more personally and academically effective, you are probably most interested in seeing how this knowledge can be put into practice. In other words, how can it help you improve your memory. Thus, we focus on memory techniques and strategies.
Our senses allow us to
enjoy our food, the sound of music, the beauty of a sunny day, the softness of
a child's hair -- in short, our lives! With the aid of the Internet, you can
teach your students about the special gift of the senses and how they work.
They will encounter sound by making instruments, guess what is inside a feely
bag by using touch, or rub a homemade scratch 'n' sniff gingerbread boy!
Experimenting with the senses is fun for everyone! Included: Web links to
additional "senses" resources!
